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Members of a Nazi Einsatzgruppe mobile killing unit during the Holocaust by bullets in Eastern Europe, archival documentation

The Holocaust by Bullets in Eastern Europe

Einsatzgruppen:
Nazi mobile killing units

A documented history of Nazi mass murder in Eastern Europe.
Einsatzgruppen

Einsatzgruppen: The Genesis of the "Holocaust by Bullets"

The systematic mass murder orchestrated by Nazi Germany began well before the establishment of notorious extermination camps such as Auschwitz-Birkenau and Sobibor.

The Einsatzgruppen were Nazi mobile killing units that played a central role in the Holocaust by bullets. Together with associated Order Police battalions and local auxiliary units, they murdered approximately 1.5 to 2 million people, the vast majority of them Jews, primarily through face-to-face mass shootings. Long before the establishment of the extermination camps and the transition to industrialized killing, the Nazi regime had begun a campaign to eliminate those it regarded as racial and political enemies, targeting primarily Jews, but also Roma and Sinti, Soviet political commissars, people with disabilities and other groups persecuted under Nazi ideology.

This campaign entered a new and far more lethal phase on June 22, 1941, with the launch of Operation Barbarossa, the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union.

The role of the Mobile Killing Units

In the wake of the advancing Wehrmacht, four specialized SS paramilitary units known as the Einsatzgruppen (A, B, C and D) were deployed. These units were tasked with securing occupied territories and soon became the principal instrument of the initial phase of the "Final Solution." Their operations were characterized by:

  • Scale of the murders: The Einsatzgruppen and associated police and auxiliary units murdered approximately 1.5 - 2 million people, the vast majority of them Jews, primarily through face-to-face mass shootings.
  • The Holocaust by Bullets: The majority of these murders occurred in forests, fields and ravines across occupied Eastern Europe.
  • The Babi Yar massacre: In one of the most brutal examples of these atrocities, 33.771 Jewish men, women and children were murdered near Kyiv, Ukraine, over two days (September 29 - 30, 1941).
  • Collaborative violence: These death squads were supported by local collaborators, auxiliary forces and reserve police battalions.

A methodical and documented campaign

Contrary to the perception of chaotic wartime violence, this phase of the Holocaust was centrally directed, highly organized and methodical. Operations were meticulously documented and reported to the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA), often accompanied by photographic evidence. These records later became important evidence during the Nuremberg Trials, demonstrating the planned and systematic nature of the genocide.

The historical significance of the Eastern Front massacres

The early mass shootings in the East remain a critical, yet frequently underemphasized, chapter of Holocaust history. They serve as definitive proof that the Nazi genocide was fully operational before the widespread implementation of gas chambers. These massacres demonstrate that the Holocaust was not an improvised consequence of war but a centrally directed campaign of ideological and racial extermination.

The surviving reports, photographs and operational records remain among the most compelling pieces of evidence documenting the crimes of the Einsatzgruppen and the implementation of the Holocaust across Eastern Europe.

The SS formed the Einsaztgruppen in the Soviet Union

Defining the Einsatzgruppen:
SS mobile killing units

The Einsatzgruppen were specialized SS mobile units operating under the authority of the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA). Deployed behind the advancing Wehrmacht, they carried out mass executions against Jews, Roma and Sinti, Soviet political commissars and other groups targeted under Nazi racial and ideological policies. Their actions marked the beginning of what became known as the "Holocaust by Bullets."
Last updated: June 2026. updated with new archival data, unit profiles and map coordinates of the eastern front genocide.

The administrative origins of the Einsatzgruppen

The evolution of the Nazi security apparatus (1938–1939)

The Einsatzgruppen emerged during the period of Nazi territorial expansion between 1938 and 1939. Operating within the expanding SS security apparatus under Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler, these mobile units were initially tasked with securing newly occupied territories, identifying political opponents and enforcing Nazi racial and ideological policies.

The role of Reinhard Heydrich and the RSHA

A central figure in the development of the Einsatzgruppen was SS-Obergruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich. As head of the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA), he coordinated the Security Police (Sipo) and the Security Service (SD) into a unified command structure. Under Heydrich's direction, the Einsatzgruppen evolved from security and intelligence detachments into highly organized mobile killing units that became a principal instrument in the early implementation of the Holocaust.

The evolution of the Einsatzgruppen (1938–1941)

The Anschluss of Austria (March 1938)

The Anschluss of Austria marked the first large-scale deployment of Einsatzgruppen-type formations. During the annexation, the Nazi security apparatus used these mobile units to secure territory, arrest political opponents and identify individuals considered hostile to the regime. These early operations provided valuable experience in coordinating SS and Security Police activities and established the organizational foundations for future deployments in occupied Europe.

The occupation of Czechoslovakia and the role of the RSHA (1939)

Following the occupation of Czechoslovakia in March 1939, the Einsatzgruppen assumed a more formal and structured role. Under the direction of SS-Obergruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich, head of the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA), their responsibilities included:

  • Territorial security: Securing newly occupied regions and maintaining Nazi control.
  • Intelligence gathering: Identifying political opponents and individuals classified as "enemies of the State."
  • Political repression: Conducting arrests, interrogations and deportations in support of Nazi occupation policy.

From Occupation to mass annihilation (1939–1941)

The outbreak of the Second World War on September 1, 1939, with the invasion of Poland, marked a decisive turning point in the evolution of the Einsatzgruppen. Their mission expanded beyond intelligence and security operations to include the systematic persecution and murder of members of the Polish elite as part of efforts to destroy the country's political, intellectual and cultural leadership. Their principal targets included:

  • Political and community leaders: Politicians, civil servants, clergy, educators, judges and members of the Polish nobility.
  • The Polish intelligentsia: Academics, writers, lawyers, teachers and other influential figures regarded as potential sources of resistance.

This process reached its most lethal phase during Operation Barbarossa in 1941. Following the invasion of the Soviet Union, the Einsatzgruppen were deployed behind the advancing Wehrmacht to carry out the "Holocaust by Bullets."

They systematically murdered Jewish communities, Roma, Soviet political commissars, Communist officials and many others targeted under Nazi racial and ideological policies on an unprecedented scale.

Orders for the Einsatzgruppen
Order of the Einsaztgruppen in the Soviet Union

Mandate of strategic ambiguity

The orders issued to the Einsatzgruppen were deliberately broad rather than highly specific. This allowed commanders to interpret and implement directives according to local conditions while pursuing the ideological objectives of the Nazi regime. By avoiding rigid operational instructions, the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA) enabled the rapid escalation of violence as the German advance moved deeper into occupied Eastern Europe.

Copyright US Holocaust Memorial Museum Collection.
Interview with Frima

Frima and her family were confined to a ghetto by the Nazis. Her father was forced to work as an interpreter and he later died. Frima, her mother and sister escaped a German mobile killing unit massacre by pretending not to be Jews. However, they were later discovered and jailed. Frima's mother devised another escape plan.

She had Frima's sister smuggled to Romania, while Frima wandered in search of safekeeping. Eventually, Frima's mother was able to arrange for her to be smuggled to Romania as well. The family was reunited in Romania, where they were liberated.

Leadership, recruitment and training

The Pretzsch Training School

In preparation for Operation Barbarossa, SS-Brigadeführer Bruno Streckenbach (1902–1977) was entrusted with the recruitment and training of Einsatzgruppen personnel. The principal training center was the Border Police School at Pretzsch on the Elbe, approximately 150 kilometers southwest of Berlin. Owing to the large number of recruits, many personnel were accommodated in surrounding towns. The training programme prepared the units for their forthcoming "special tasks" on the Eastern Front and included:

  • Ideological indoctrination: Lectures on Nazi racial ideology, anti-Bolshevism and the so-called "Russian mentality."
  • Tactical instruction: Training in security operations, anti-partisan warfare and logistical planning.
  • Operational readiness: Military drills, weapons training and medical briefings on diseases likely to be encountered on the Eastern Front.

In June 1941, Reinhard Heydrich personally briefed the Einsatzgruppen commanders before the invasion of the Soviet Union. Although no complete transcript of his address survives, surviving evidence indicates that the briefing emphasized the ideological objectives of the campaign and prepared the units for the mass executions that followed in the occupied territories.

Personnel composition and the execution mandate

Who were the men of the death squads?

The Einsatzgruppen consisted of approximately 3.000 personnel. Their ranks were drawn from several Nazi security organizations, including the Sicherheitspolizei (Sipo), Sicherheitsdienst (SD) and Ordnungspolizei (Orpo) and were reinforced by selected members of the Waffen-SS.

The Heydrich Directive (July 2, 1941)

In a formal communication to the Higher SS and Police Leaders (HSSPFs), Reinhard Heydrich defined the principal categories of individuals to be targeted during security operations in the occupied Soviet territories. These included:

  • Communist officials: Representatives of the Comintern, senior Communist Party officials and professional Communist politicians.
  • Party cadres: National and regional Communist Party functionaries, particularly those regarded as ideological leaders or potential organizers of resistance.
  • People's Commissars: Soviet political commissars and senior officials within the Soviet administration.
  • Jewish targets: Jews holding positions within the Communist Party or Soviet state administration, as well as individuals accused of sabotage, resistance, or other activities deemed hostile to the Nazi occupation.

Heydrich also instructed Einsatzgruppen commanders to encourage and exploit local antisemitic sentiment wherever possible. By fostering and supporting pogroms against Jewish communities, the SS sought to intensify the violence while creating the appearance that the killings were spontaneous actions carried out by local populations.

Who were the leaders of the Einsatzgruppen?

The commanders of the Einsatzgruppen and Einsatzkommandos were carefully selected from Reinhard Heydrich's senior SS and Security Police leadership. Unlike many of the rank-and-file personnel, these officers were highly educated, with many holding doctorates in law, economics, history, or other academic disciplines. Their education and administrative experience enabled them to organize and direct large-scale operations with remarkable efficiency.

  • Ideological commitment: Many commanders were committed National Socialists who embraced Nazi racial and ideological doctrine.
  • Administrative leadership: They coordinated personnel, logistics, reporting and cooperation with other SS, police and military authorities.
  • Operational command: They planned and supervised mass executions while ensuring that detailed operational reports were submitted to the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA).

Collaboration and auxiliary forces

The effectiveness of the Einsatzgruppen depended heavily on the support of local collaborators and auxiliary forces. Across the Baltic states, Ukraine, Belarus and other occupied territories, the SS worked closely with auxiliary police units, local militias and other collaborators who assisted in identifying, arresting, guarding and murdering those targeted under Nazi racial and ideological policies.

This cooperation significantly increased the scale and speed of the killings. While the Einsatzgruppen planned and directed the operations, the participation of local auxiliary forces played a crucial role in implementing the "Holocaust by Bullets" across occupied Eastern Europe.

Did the Einsatzgruppen have enough manpower?

The limits of paramilitary capacity

Despite commanding an auxiliary force of approximately 10.000 police officers and 33.000 local collaborators, the Einsatzgruppen lacked the manpower to carry out the systematic extermination of Jewish communities across the vast territories of occupied Eastern Europe on their own. To achieve the regime's genocidal objectives, the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA) and senior SS leadership relied on the participation of additional Order Police (Orpo) battalions, Waffen-SS units and other auxiliary formations.

This broad network of military, police and civilian collaborators transformed the mass shootings from operations conducted by relatively small mobile units into a coordinated campaign of genocide across occupied Eastern Europe.

Key participating units and collaborators

The Einsatzgruppen did not operate in isolation. Their campaign of mass murder relied on the support and participation of numerous German military, police and auxiliary organizations, including:

  • SS Brigades: Various SS formations operated behind the front lines, supporting security operations and participating in mass killings.
  • The Fegelein Cavalry Brigade: Commanded by Hermann Fegelein, this SS cavalry formation conducted large-scale "pacification" operations in the Pripyat Marshes, resulting in the mass murder of thousands of civilians, particularly Jews.
  • The Arājs Kommando: A Latvian auxiliary unit led by Viktors Arājs, responsible for the murder of tens of thousands of Jews and other victims in Latvia.
  • Reserve Police Battalions (Ordnungspolizei): These police units played a central role in the roundup, deportation and mass shooting of Jewish communities and other civilians throughout occupied Eastern Europe.
  • SS Sturmbrigade Dirlewanger: Commanded by Oskar Dirlewanger, a convicted sex offender, this notorious penal unit was composed largely of convicted criminals and became infamous for its exceptional brutality during anti-partisan operations and the mass murder of civilians. Its deployment illustrates how the Nazi regime exploited convicted criminals alongside ideologically committed SS personnel in the pursuit of genocide.
  • The 5th SS Panzer Division Wiking: Although primarily a Waffen-SS combat formation, elements of the division participated in security operations and were implicated in atrocities against Jewish civilians and other targeted groups during the campaign in the Soviet Union.
  • The Wehrmacht: Although not formally part of the Einsatzgruppen, elements of the German Army secured operational areas, provided logistical support, assisted in the roundup of civilians and in some instances directly participated in mass shootings.

Movement of the Einsatzgruppen (1941-1942)

Map of Einsatzgruppen operational zones A, B, C and D during the invasion of the Soviet Union.

Click on the map to enlarge

The map above illustrates the movement of the Einsatzgruppen A, B, C and D from June 1941 to November 1942. These mobile units tracked alongside the advancing German Wehrmacht into the Soviet Union under Operation Barbarossa.

Psychological impact of mass executions

The mental toll on perpetrators

While the victims endured unimaginable suffering and death, the members of the Einsatzgruppen also faced the psychological consequences of carrying out thousands of face-to-face executions. Unlike the later extermination camps, where killing became increasingly mechanized, the Holocaust by bullets required perpetrators to shoot men, women and children at close range, often over prolonged periods.

Reports from the Eastern Front described cases of battle fatigue, emotional strain and widespread alcoholism among some members of the Einsatzgruppen and attached police units. However, historians also note that many perpetrators continued their duties without significant hesitation, motivated by ideological conviction, obedience, peer pressure, career ambitions or a gradual desensitization to violence. Psychological distress rarely resulted in refusal to participate.

On 15 August 1941, Heinrich Himmler witnessed a mass execution near Minsk. During the shooting, Himmler reportedly became physically ill after observing the brutal killings at close range. The incident reinforced his concern that the direct involvement of SS personnel in mass shootings could negatively affect the efficiency and morale of the execution squads.

The shift toward industrialized killing

Following his visit, Himmler instructed Arthur Nebe, commander of Einsatzgruppe B, to investigate alternative methods of mass murder that would reduce the psychological burden on the perpetrators while increasing efficiency. Experiments with explosives and carbon monoxide eventually led to the development of mobile gas vans, in which victims were killed by engine exhaust during transport.

The search for more systematic methods of mass murder culminated in the establishment of permanent extermination camps. On 13 October 1941, Himmler instructed Odilo Globočnik, SS and Police Leader in the Lublin District, to begin preparations for the construction of Bełżec, the first extermination camp established as part of Operation Reinhard. Together with Sobibór and Treblinka, these camps marked the transition from the mass shootings carried out by the Einsatzgruppen to the industrialized extermination of Europe's Jews during the Final Solution.

Click on the pictures to enlarge them
The Judenfrei report and the map by SS Standartenführer Karl Jäger
Polizei Battalions
Assisted in the Holocaust

During World War II, more than 130 Order Police (Ordnungspolizei) battalions served in occupied Europe. Their primary role was to enforce German occupation policies, maintain public order, guard prisoners and conduct anti-partisan operations. Many battalions also played a central role in the Holocaust by bullets, assisting the Einsatzgruppen in the roundup and mass shooting of Jews, Roma, Soviet political commissars and other civilians targeted by the Nazi regime.

Although participation in many of the mass shootings was technically voluntary, historical research has shown that very few policemen refused to take part. Those who declined were generally assigned other duties and were rarely subjected to severe punishment by their commanding officers. Nevertheless, peer pressure, ideological conviction, obedience to authority and concern for their military careers ensured that the overwhelming majority participated in the killings.
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Commanding officers of the Einsatzgruppen

Commanding officers of the Einsatzgruppen up to 1941

SS-Brigadeführer Dr. Franz W. Stahlecker

SS-Brigadeführer Dr. Franz W. Stahlecker

Einsatzgruppe A consisted of approximately 990 men

Franz Walter Stahlecker commanded Einsatzgruppe A, the largest of the four Einsatzgruppen assigned to Operation Barbarossa. His unit consisted of approximately 990 men drawn from the Gestapo, the Sicherheitsdienst (SD), the Kriminalpolizei (Kripo), the Ordnungspolizei (Orpo) and the Waffen-SS.

Operating in the Baltic States and advancing into northwestern Soviet territory, Einsatzgruppe A was responsible for the systematic murder of hundreds of thousands of Jews, political commissars, Roma and other groups targeted by the Nazi regime. Stahlecker worked closely with local collaborators, encouraging and organizing anti-Jewish pogroms before the Einsatzgruppe assumed direct control of the mass killings.

Death

Franz Walter Stahlecker was killed on 22 March 1942 during an engagement with Soviet partisans near Krasnogvardeysk, Soviet Union (today Gatchina, Russia). He was succeeded as commander of Einsatzgruppe A by Heinz Jost.

SS-Brigadeführer Arthur Nebe

SS-Brigadeführer Arthur Nebe

Einsatzgruppe B consisted of approximately 650 men

Arthur Nebe commanded Einsatzgruppe B, which consisted of approximately 650 men. The unit was composed of personnel from the Gestapo, the Sicherheitsdienst (SD), the Kriminalpolizei (Kripo), the Ordnungspolizei (Orpo) and the Waffen-SS.

Operating behind Army Group Centre, Einsatzgruppe B carried out mass shootings throughout present-day Belarus and western Russia. Under Nebe's command, the unit systematically murdered tens of thousands of Jews, Soviet political commissars, Roma and other civilians identified as enemies of the Nazi regime.

Death

In October 1941, Arthur Nebe returned to Berlin, where he resumed his position as head of the Reich Criminal Police Office (Kripo) within the Reich Main Security Office (RSHA). Historians believe he sought reassignment after becoming increasingly affected by the psychological strain of the mass shootings.

Following the failed 20 July Plot against Adolf Hitler in 1944, Nebe was implicated in the conspiracy. After several months in hiding, he was arrested by the Gestapo, sentenced to death by the People's Court (Volksgerichtshof) and executed by hanging at Plötzensee Prison in Berlin on 21 March 1945.

SS-Gruppenführer Dr. Dr. Otto Rasch

SS-Gruppenführer Dr. Dr. Otto Rasch

Einsatzgruppe C consisted of approximately 700 men

Otto Rasch commanded Einsatzgruppe C, which consisted of approximately 700 men. The unit was composed of personnel from the Gestapo, the Sicherheitsdienst (SD), the Kriminalpolizei (Kripo), the Ordnungspolizei (Orpo) and the Waffen-SS.

Operating behind Army Group South, Einsatzgruppe C carried out mass shootings throughout Ukraine. Under Rasch's command, the unit was responsible for the murder of tens of thousands of Jews, Soviet political commissars, Roma and other civilians. The most notorious massacre carried out by Einsatzgruppe C was the mass execution at Babi Yar near Kyiv on 29–30 September 1941, during which 33.771 Jewish men, women and children were murdered in just two days.

Death

At the end of September 1947, Otto Rasch was indicted before the Einsatzgruppen Trial in Nuremberg. However, the proceedings against him were discontinued on 5 February 1948 after he was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease and declared medically unfit to stand trial.

Otto Rasch died on 1 November 1948 in Wehrstedt, Lower Saxony, Germany, without ever being brought to justice for his crimes.

SS-Gruppenführer Dr. Otto Ohlendorf

SS-Gruppenführer Dr. Otto Ohlendorf

Einsatzgruppe D consisted of approximately 500–600 men

Otto Ohlendorf commanded Einsatzgruppe D, which consisted of approximately 500-600 men. The unit was composed of personnel from the Gestapo, the Sicherheitsdienst (SD), the Kriminalpolizei (Kripo), the Ordnungspolizei (Orpo) and the Waffen-SS.

Operating behind the German 11th Army in southern Ukraine, Crimea and later the northern Caucasus, Einsatzgruppe D systematically murdered Jews, Soviet political commissars, Roma and other civilians identified as enemies of the Nazi regime. Under Ohlendorf's command, the unit was responsible for the murder of an estimated 90.000 people between 1941 and 1942.

Commanding officers Einsatzgruppen after 1941

SS-Brigadeführer Heinz Jost

SS-Brigadeführer Heinz Jost

Einsatzgruppe A consisted of approximately 990men

Heinz Jost succeeded Franz Walter Stahlecker as commander of Einsatzgruppe A in March 1942. The unit consisted of approximately 990 men drawn from the Gestapo, the Sicherheitsdienst (SD), the Kriminalpolizei (Kripo), the Ordnungspolizei (Orpo) and the Waffen-SS.

Operating in the Baltic States and northwestern Soviet territory, Einsatzgruppe A continued the systematic murder of Jews, political commissars, Roma and other groups targeted by the Nazi regime. Although Jost's period of command was relatively brief, the Einsatzgruppe remained actively involved in mass shootings and anti-partisan operations until he was replaced later in 1942.

Death

Following the war, Heinz Jost was tried before the Einsatzgruppen Trial in Nuremberg. In 1948, he was convicted of war crimes and crimes against humanity and sentenced to life imprisonment. His sentence was later reduced and he was released from Landsberg Prison in 1951. After his release, Jost worked as a real estate agent in Düsseldorf. He died on 12 November 1964 in Bensheim, West Germany.

SS-Brigadeführer Erich Naumann

SS-Brigadeführer Erich Naumann

Einsatzgruppe B consisted of approximately 650 men

Erich Naumann succeeded Arthur Nebe as commander of Einsatzgruppe B in November 1941. The unit consisted of approximately 650 men drawn from the Gestapo, the Sicherheitsdienst (SD), the Kriminalpolizei (Kripo), the Ordnungspolizei (Orpo) and the Waffen-SS.

Operating behind Army Group Centre, Einsatzgruppe B continued the systematic murder of Jews, Soviet political commissars, Roma and other civilians in Belarus and western Russia. Under Naumann's command, the unit remained one of the principal instruments of the Holocaust by bullets and the Nazi policy of mass murder in the occupied Soviet Union.

Death

Following the war, Erich Naumann was tried before the Einsatzgruppen Trial in Nuremberg. He was found guilty of war crimes, crimes against humanity, and membership in the criminal organizations of the SS and the Sicherheitsdienst (SD). He was sentenced to death and executed by hanging at Landsberg Prison shortly after midnight on 7 June 1951.

SS-Gruppenführer Dr. Max Thomas

SS-Gruppenführer Dr. Max Thomas

Einsatzgruppe C consisted of approximately 700 men

Max Thomas succeeded Otto Rasch as commander of Einsatzgruppe C in October 1941. The unit consisted of approximately 700 men drawn from the Gestapo, the Sicherheitsdienst (SD), the Kriminalpolizei (Kripo), the Ordnungspolizei (Orpo) and the Waffen-SS.

Operating behind Army Group South, Einsatzgruppe C continued the systematic murder of Jews, Soviet political commissars, Roma and other civilians throughout occupied Ukraine. Under Thomas's command, the unit remained actively involved in mass shootings, anti-partisan operations and the implementation of Nazi racial policy in the occupied territories.

Death

Following Germany's surrender, Max Thomas was arrested by Allied forces. On 6 December 1945, while in custody, he attempted suicide. He died the same day from his injuries at the Luitpold Hospital in Würzburg, Germany.

SS-Brigadeführer Walther Bierkamp

SS-Gruppenführer Dr. Otto Ohlendorf

Einsatzgruppe D consisted of approximately 500–600 men

Otto Ohlendorf commanded Einsatzgruppe D, which consisted of approximately 500-600 men. The unit was composed of personnel from the Gestapo, the Sicherheitsdienst (SD), the Kriminalpolizei (Kripo), the Ordnungspolizei (Orpo) and the Waffen-SS.

Operating behind the German 11th Army in southern Ukraine, Crimea and later the northern Caucasus, Einsatzgruppe D systematically murdered Jews, Soviet political commissars, Roma and other civilians identified as enemies of the Nazi regime. Under Ohlendorf's command, the unit was responsible for the murder of an estimated 90.000 people between 1941 and 1942.

Replacement

In July 1942, Ohlendorf relinquished command of Einsatzgruppe D and was succeeded by SS-Brigadeführer Dr. Walther Bierkamp. Ohlendorf then returned to Berlin to resume his duties as head of RSHA Amt III (SD-Inland).

Death

Following the war, Otto Ohlendorf was tried before the Einsatzgruppen Trial in Nuremberg. He was convicted of war crimes, crimes against humanity, and membership in the criminal organizations of the SS and the Sicherheitsdienst (SD). He was sentenced to death and, after spending nearly three years in detention, was executed by hanging at Landsberg Prison, Bavaria, on 7 June 1951.

Structure and Organization of the Einsatzgruppen

Hierarchy of the Sonderkommandos and Einsatzkommandos
The figures below represent documented victims reported in surviving German Einsatzgruppen operational reports (Ereignismeldungen UdSSR) and should be regarded as minimum totals rather than the final number of victims.
Einsatzgruppen A
136.421 documented victims
Einsatzgruppe A was assigned to Army Group North under Field Marshal Wilhelm von Leeb, operated throughout the Baltic states up to Leningrad. It was composed of the following units:
  • Sonderkommando 1a
    Commanded by Martin Sandberger
    replaced by Bernhard Baatz.
  • Sonderkommando 1b
    Commanded by Erich Ehrlinger
    later replaced by Walter Hoffmann and later by Eduard Strauch.
  • Einsatzkommando 2
    Commanded by Rudolf Batz
    replaced by Eduard Strauch and later Rudolf Lange.
  • Einsatzkommando 3
    Commanded by Karl Jäger
    replaced by Wilhelm Fuchs and later by Hans-Joachim Böhme.
Einsatzgruppen B
134.298 documented victims
Einsatzgruppe B was assigned to Army Group Centre under Field Marshal Fedor von Bock, operated in Belarus and along the advance toward Moscow. It was composed of the following units:
  • Sonderkommando 7a
    Commanded by Walter Blume
    replaced by Eugen Steimle later by Kurt Matschke and later by Albert Rapp and Helmut Looss and Gerhard Bast.
  • Sonderkommando 7b
    Commanded by Günter Rausch
    replaced by Adolf Ott and later by Josef Auinger and Karl-Georg Rabe.
  • Sonderkommando 7c
    Commanded by Wilhelm Bock
    replaced by Ernst Schmücker and later by Wilhelm Blühm and Hans Eckhardt
  • Einsatzkommando 8
    Commanded by Otto Bradfisch
    replaced by Heinz Richter, then by Erich Isselhorst and later by Hans-Gerhard Schindhelm and Alfred Rendörffer.
  • Einsatzkommando 9
    Commanded by Alfred Filbert
    replaced by Oswald Schäfer later by Wilhelm Wiebens and by  Dr. Friedrich Buchardt and Werner Kämpf.
  • Vorkommando Moskau
    Commanded by Franz Six
    replaced by Woldemar Klingelhöfer and later by Dr. Erich Körting and Dr. Friedrich Buchardt and by Friedrich-Wilhelm Bock .
Einsatzgruppen C
118.341 documented victims
Einsatzgruppe C was assigned to Army Group South under Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt, operated in the northern and central part of Ukraine. It was composed of the following units:
  • Sonderkommando 4a
    Commanded by Paul Blobel
    replaced by Erwin Weinmann, then Eugen Steimle and later by Friedrich Schmidt and Theodor Christensen.
  • Sonderkommando 4b
    Commanded by Günter Hermann
    replaced by Fritz Braune, then by Dr. Walter Hänsch and later by Walter Hänsch and August Meier, Friedrich Suhr and Waldemar Krause.
  • Einsatzkommando 5
    Commanded by Erwin Schulz
    replaced by August Meier.
  • Einsatzkommando 6
    Commanded by Dr. Erhard Kröger
    replaced by Robert Möhr, later by Ernst Biberstein and later by Friedrich Suhr.
Einsatzgruppen D
91.728 documented victims
Einsatzgruppe D was assigned to the German 11th Army under Generaloberst Erich von Manstein, operated in Moldavia, southern Ukraine, Crimea and the Caucasus. It was composed of the following units:
  • Sonderkommando 10a
    Commanded by Heinz Seetzen
    replaced by Dr. Kurt Christmann.
  • Sonderkommando 10b
    Commanded by Aloïs Persterer
    replaced by Eduard Jedamzik.
  • Einsatzkommando 11a
    Commanded by Paul Zapp
    replaced by Dr. Gerhard Bast and later by Werner Hersmann.
  • Einsatzkommando 11b
    Commanded by Hans Unglaube
    replaced by Bruno Müller and later by Werner Braune and Paul Schulz.
  • Einsatzkommando 12
    Commanded by Gustav Nosske
    replaced by Erich Müller and later by Günther Herrmann.

Number of people executed by the different Einsatzgruppen

Einsatzgruppen major operations were aimed mainly against the Jews

Einsatzgruppen's major operations

Pogroms, massacres and atrocities committed in 1941

Kaunas Pogrom, Lithuania 27 june 1941.
Kaunas Pogrom, Lithuania
25 – 29 June 1941
Around 4.000 Jews murdered in public beatings, street killings and mass executions. The most notorious event, known as the Lietūkis Garage Massacre, took place at the former NKVD garage in Kaunas, nationalized as the Lietūkis garage. On 27 June, several dozen Jewish men allegedly linked to the NKV were publicly tortured and executed in front of a crowd of Lithuanian men, women and children.
Liepāja massacre, Latvia that happened on 29 – 30 June 1941.
Liepāja Massacres, Latvia
29 – 30 June 1941
The Liepāja massacres were a series of mass executions, many public or semi-public, in and near the city of Liepāja, on the west coast of Latvia. About 5.000 of the 5.700 Jews trapped in Liepāja were shot by the Einsatzgruppen  1a, Ordnungspolizei, Arajs Kommando, Latvian Auxiliary Police, Wehrmacht and the Kriegsmarine.
Public killing or Pogrom in Riga, Latvia on 4 July, 1941.
Riga Pogrom, Latvia
4 July 1941
Having entered the town, German Einsatzgruppe A initiated a pogrom with the participation of Latvian units. Ca. 400 Jews were murdered and all synagogues were burned down.
The Ponary Forest Massacre took place from July 1941 to August 1944
Ponary Forest Massacre
July to September 1941
After the German occupation of Vilna, Lithuania on June 24, 1941 (now Vilnius). In the following weeks, Einsatzgruppen, aided by Lithuanian collaborators, began systematically murdering the Jewish population. They were taken to the Ponary Forest (Paneriai), southwest of the city, and executed in mass graves. Killings continued which resulted in 75.000 people, mostly Jews, having been murdered.
Kamenets-Podolsk massacre happened between 27 - 28 August 1941
Kamenets-Podolsk Massacre
27 - 28 August 1941
One of the first large-scale mass shootings of the Holocaust. 23.600 Jews, primarily Hungarian Jews deported to Ukraine. Hungarian authorities deported thousands of Jews, many of whom were stateless, to German-occupied Ukraine. The SS, assisted by local collaborators, executed them over two days in pits outside the city.
The abi Yar Massacre, Kiev, Ukraine took two days from 29 to 30 September 1941.
Babi Yar Massacre, Ukraine
29 - 30 September 1941
33.771 Jews executed in a ravine in Kiev over two days by Einsatzgruppe C, Sonderkommando 4a and Ukrainian auxiliaries. Main perpetrators were: Friedrich Jeckeln, Otto Rasch, Paul Blobel, Kurt Eberhard
Lubny Massacre, Ukraine
16 October 1941
On October 16, 1941, more than a thousand Jewish residents of Lubny, a town in what is now Ukraine, were forced to gather in an open field under the pretense of “resettlement.” Instead, they were brutally massacred by Nazi Einsatzgruppen.
Kaunas massacre at Fort IX happend on October 29, 1941.
Kaunas Massacre
October to November 1941
Mass executions were carried out at Fort IX by members of Einsatzkommando 3, under orders from Karl Jäger and Helmut Rauca. They murdered 9.200 Jews, 2.007 men, 2.920 women, and 4.273 children in a single day. About 27.000 Jews assembled, while Lithuanian partisans searched homes for anyone in hiding.
The first Rumbula Massacre happened on November 30, 1941.
Rumbula Massacre, Riga, Latvia
30 November - 8 December 1941
±25.000 Jews murdered over two days: 13.000 on 30 November (including 1.000 Jews from Berlin). 10.000 on 8 December and approximately 1.000 killed en route or in the streets. Victims marched, stripped and shot into pits prepared by POWs. 1.500 Jews spared temporarily for slave labor.
The abi Yar Massacre, Kiev, Ukraine took two days from 29 to 30 September 1941.
Tallinn, Estonia
1941–1942
In Tallinn and other areas in Estonia, round-ups and killings of the remaining Jews began immediately following the arrival of the first German troops on July 7, 1941. The killings were undertaken by the extermination squad Einsatzkommando 1A (Sonderkommando) under Martin Sandberger, part of Einsatzgruppe A led by Walter Stahlecker,
What is a Pogrom?

The word pogrom originates from the Russian language and means "to wreak havoc" or "to destroy violently." Historically, the term refers to violent, organized attacks against Jewish communities, often carried out by local mobs with the support, encouragement or indifference of government authorities. Pogroms were especially common in the Russian Empire and parts of Eastern Europe during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

During Operation Barbarossa in 1941, the Nazis deliberately encouraged and exploited anti-Jewish sentiment in the occupied Soviet territories. In several cities, including Kaunas, Lviv and Riga, local collaborators carried out pogroms against Jewish residents before or alongside the arrival of the Einsatzgruppen. The SS used these attacks as propaganda, portraying the murders as spontaneous acts of local revenge while, in reality, they were often instigated, organized or encouraged by German occupation authorities.

Operational 'success'

Reinhard Heydrich's strategy proved effective from the perspective of the Nazi leadership. During the first weeks of Operation Barbarossa, more than 40 pogroms took place across the occupied Soviet territories, resulting in the murder of thousands of Jewish men, women and children by local collaborators.

These outbreaks of violence created an atmosphere of fear and terror within Jewish communities while also helping the German occupation authorities identify and isolate their victims. The pogroms enabled the Einsatzgruppen to expand and accelerate their campaign of mass murder, while Nazi propaganda falsely portrayed the killings as spontaneous acts of local anti-Jewish violence rather than part of a centrally planned policy of extermination.

Mass shootings and massacres of innocent civilians

The Einsatzgruppen, the Nazi mobile killing units, committed some of the most horrific atrocities of World War II. Assisted by Order Police battalions, Waffen-SS units, local auxiliary forces and civilian collaborators, they carried out systematic mass shootings throughout the occupied Soviet Union. Between 1941 and 1945, these operations resulted in the murder of approximately 1.5 to 2 million people, the vast majority of them Jews. Their victims also included Roma, Soviet political commissars, prisoners of war, disabled people and others whom the Nazi regime considered undesirable.

Unlike the extermination camps, where murder became increasingly industrialized through the use of gas chambers, the crimes committed by the Einsatzgruppen were carried out face-to-face. Victims were rounded up, marched to ravines, forests or prepared pits, forced to surrender their possessions and then shot at close range. These massacres became known as the Holocaust by bullets and remain one of the darkest chapters in human history. Understanding these mass shootings is essential to understanding the full scope of the Holocaust and the implementation of Nazi genocide across Eastern Europe.

Discover some of these massacres

Murder by gassing in the Soviet Union

A dark milestone in the Holocaust

Between 1941 and 1942, SS-Standartenführer Walter Rauff played a key role in developing and deploying one of the Nazi regime's most notorious instruments of mass murder: the gas van. These mobile gas chambers killed their victims through carbon monoxide poisoning and represented an important step in the transition from face-to-face mass shootings to increasingly mechanized methods of extermination.

As the scale of the Holocaust by bullets expanded, Heinrich Himmler and other SS leaders sought a more "impersonal" method of killing that would reduce the psychological burden on the execution squads while maintaining the pace of mass murder. Drawing upon the technology and personnel of Aktion T4, the Nazi euthanasia programme, engineers developed sealed vans in which engine exhaust was redirected into the cargo compartment, killing those trapped inside.

The first operational use of gas vans took place in the occupied Soviet Union during late 1941, where they were employed by the Einsatzgruppen and other SS units. Shortly afterwards, they were introduced on a much larger scale at the Chełmno extermination camp in occupied Poland, where they became the primary method of killing.

Victims, most often Jews, but also Roma, people with disabilities and others labelled "undesirable" by the Nazi regime, were falsely told they were being transported for resettlement or labour. Instead, they were forced into the sealed rear compartment of the vans. Once the doors were closed, engine exhaust was pumped inside, causing death by carbon monoxide poisoning during the journey to nearby burial sites. Historians estimate that well over 100.000 people were murdered using gas vans during the Holocaust.

Although often associated exclusively with Nazi Germany, similar vehicles had reportedly been used on a limited scale by the Soviet NKVD during the Great Purge of the 1930s. However, the Nazis refined, expanded and systematically incorporated the technology into their programme of genocide on an unprecedented scale.

SS-Standartenführer Walter Rauff
19 juni 1906 - 14 mei 1984
Responsible for the development of the gas vans
    The Nazi gas vans or mobile gas chambers
    Gruesome gas vans
    Nazi mobile gas chambers
    Similar gas vans such as this one, were provided to the Einsatzgruppen.
      Destroyed Magirus-Deutz Found at Chełmno camp
      Destroyed Magirus-Deutz
      Found at Chełmno camp

      Victims were locked inside and the lethal fumes were used to kill them.

        The introduction of the gas van marked a significant stage in the evolution of the Holocaust. Although mass shootings remained the primary method of murder employed by the Einsatzgruppen, the gas vans demonstrated how technology and bureaucracy were increasingly combined to facilitate systematic killing. They also served as a precursor to the stationary gas chambers later used at extermination camps such as Bełżec, Sobibór, Treblinka and Auschwitz-Birkenau, where industrialized mass murder reached its deadliest form.

        The Einsatzgruppen facilitated the 'Holocaust by Bullets' in Eastern Europe during Operation Barbarossa.
        In this picture, members of Einsatzgruppe D are carrying out a mass shooting of Jews.
        This took place near the Soviet city of Dubossary, September 14, 1941.

        The einsatzgruppen in numbers

        3000
        was the number of personnel in the Einsatzgruppen?

        Added with ± 43.000 auxiliary forces (mostly police) and locals

        2000000
        were murdered by the Einsatzgruppen

        Around 1.5 million and possibly over 2 million people died due to mass shootings or in gas vans

        700000
        by asphyxiation with carbon monoxide in gassing vans

        Gassing was considered and proved to be more economical and less aggravating for the SS.

        600
        in Eastern Europe were completely annihilated

        These villages were wiped off the map by the Einsatzgruppen.

        Exposed: Photographic evidence of Einsatzgruppen crimes

        Caution: The following images contain graphic historical content and may be disturbing. Parental guidance is advised for viewers under the age of 18.

        The photographs below provide rare and disturbing evidence of the crimes committed by the Einsatzgruppen, the Nazi mobile killing units that operated behind the advancing German armies during Operation Barbarossa. They show uniformed members of the Einsatzgruppen, often assisted by Order Police battalions, local auxiliary forces and collaborators, carrying out the systematic execution of innocent civilians, including men, women and children.

        These images are presented for historical and educational purposes only. They document the reality of the Holocaust by bullets and serve as irrefutable evidence of the systematic murder carried out by the Nazi regime in occupied Eastern Europe. Although deeply disturbing, they remain an essential part of understanding the scale, brutality and human cost of the Holocaust.

        Ivangorod in 1942
        Einsatzgruppen murder Jews in near Kiev, Ukraine,
        An innocent mother protecting her child are being murdered by a member of the Einsatzgruppe near Ivanhorod in Ukraine. The photo was mailed from the Eastern Front to Germany and intercepted at a Warsaw post office by a member of the Polish resistance collecting documentation on Nazi war crimes.
        A group of civilians, likely Jews moments before execution.
        Šiauliai, Lithuania, in July 1941
        A firing squad of Einsaztgruppen men is aiming at the group.
        A group of civilians, likely Jews, as Einsatzgruppen primarily targeted Jewish communities, are seen standing at the edge of a trench, moments before execution.
        The condemned men were forced to dig their own graves before being killed.
        July 1941, in Šiauliai, Lithuania
        The execution process often extended over several days
        A subunit of Einsatzgruppe A carried out executions in Nazi-occupied Soviet territory. The condemned men were forced to dig their own graves before being killed.
        Jewish women and children are forced to undress before being executed
        Liepaja, Latvia
        Local auxiliaries gather Jewish children
        Jewish women and children are forced to undress before being executed by the Einsatzgruppen and local auxiliaries
        Innocent-men-are-being-murdered-at-point-blank-range-einsatzgruppen
        Kovno, Lithuania, 1942
        Einsatzgruppen and their auxiliaries commit murder
        Innocent men are being murdered at point blank range by the einsatzgruppen and their auxiliaries
        Mass execution of Soviet civilians, 1941
        Zhitomir, September 19, 1941
        Mass execution of Soviet civilians

        Men from an unidentified unit execute a group of Soviet civilians kneeling by the side of a mass grave

        Prisoners-were-forced-to-dig-their-own-graves-execution-of-Jews-around-1941
        Ponary forrest, Vilnius, 1941
        Digging a trench in which they were later buried
        Nazi killing squads and Lithuanian auxiliaires executed around 75.000 Jews from Vilna in the Ponary forest in the summer of 1941

        The Einsatzgruppen Trials

        Justice for the Nazi crimes and atrocities

        Following World War II, the Einsatzgruppen Trial was held in Nuremberg, Germany, to bring leading members of the Nazi mobile killing units to justice. Officially known as United States of America v. Otto Ohlendorf, et al., it was Case 9 of the Subsequent Nuremberg Trials, formally conducted before Nuremberg Military Tribunal II. The trial took place from 29 September 1947 to 10 April 1948. A total of 24 defendants, all senior officers or officials connected to the Einsatzgruppen, were charged with war crimes, crimes against humanity and membership in criminal organizations, including the SS and the Sicherheitsdienst (SD).

        Judges of Nuremberg Military Tribunal II, Case 9

        Michael A. Musmanno
        Presiding Judge, United States Naval Reserve, County of Allegheny, Pennsylvania.

        John J. Speight
        Judge, prominent member of the Alabama Bar.

        Richard D. Dixon
        Judge, Superior Court of the State of North Carolina.

        The evidence presented during the trial exposed in detail the systematic mass murder carried out by the Einsatzgruppen in occupied Eastern Europe. The proceedings demonstrated that the killings were not random acts of wartime violence, but part of a planned programme of extermination directed by the Nazi regime.

        The trial resulted in numerous convictions, with sentences ranging from prison terms to death by hanging. It became one of the most important legal proceedings after the war because it documented the crimes of the Holocaust by bullets and helped establish legal precedents for prosecuting crimes against humanity. The Einsatzgruppen Trial remains a powerful reminder that those who organize and carry out mass murder can be held accountable before the law.

        John J. Speight, Michael A. Musmanno, and Richard D. Dixon
        The judges (from left to right) John J. Speight, Michael A. Musmanno and Richard D. Dixon.
        Defendant Otto Ohlendorf formally pleads "not guilty".

        Defendant Otto Ohlendorf, commander of Einsatzgruppe D and responsible for the murder of approximately 90.000 people, stands behind the microphone as he formally enters a plea of "not guilty" during the Einsatzgruppen Trial in Nuremberg.

        Chief prosecutor Benjamin Berell Ferencz

        Chief prosecutor Benjamin B. Ferencz

        Benjamin Berell Ferencz (11 March 1920 – 7 April 2023) was honorably discharged from the United States Army as a sergeant on Christmas Day 1945. Shortly after returning to New York, he was recruited by Telford Taylor to join the prosecution team for the Subsequent Nuremberg Trials, where he was given the honorary rank of colonel.

        In early 1946, while examining captured German documents near Tempelhof Airport in Berlin, Ferencz discovered detailed Einsatzgruppen Reports (Ereignismeldungen UdSSR). These reports meticulously documented the systematic murder of more than one million people in the occupied Soviet Union beginning in June 1941. Realizing the significance of the evidence, Ferencz travelled to Nuremberg and urged that those responsible be brought to trial.

        Although Telford Taylor initially hesitated because of limited resources, he appointed the 26-year-old Benjamin Ferencz as Chief Prosecutor of the Einsatzgruppen Trial, making it his first major case. Twenty-four senior Einsatzgruppen commanders and officials were indicted. Twenty-two were convicted, thirteen were sentenced to death and four were ultimately executed by hanging, among the last executions carried out on German soil.

        Chief Prosecutor Benjamin Ferencz during the Einsatzgruppen Trial of the Subsequent Nuremberg Proceedings. 
        Chief Prosecutor Benjamin B. Ferencz during the Einsatzgruppen Trial (Case No. 9) of the Subsequent Nuremberg Trials.

        Perpetrators and their sentences

        Heinz Jost

        Heinz Jost

        Commander of Einsatzgruppe A
        Life imprisonment
        Commuted to 10 years
        Released in December 1951
        Died in 1964
        Erich Naumann

        Erich Naumann

        Commander of Einsatzgruppe B
        Death by hanging
        Executed on June 7, 1951
        Otto Rasch

        Dr. Dr. Otto Rasch

        Commander of Einsatzgruppe C

        Case dropped
        Removed from trial for medical reasons
        Died on November 1, 1948

        Otto Ohlendorf

        Otto Ohlendorf

        Commander of Einsatzgruppe D
        Death by hanging
        Executed on June 7, 1951
        Willy Seibert

        Willy Seibert

        Deputy Commander Einsatzgruppen D
        Death by hanging
        Commuted to 15 years
        Released on May 14, 1954
        Died in 1976
        Heinz Schubert

        Heinz Schubert

        Adjutant to Ohlendorf
        Death by hanging
        Commuted to 10 years
        Released in December 1951
        Died in 1987
        Waldemar Klingelhöfer

        Waldemar Klingelhöfer

        Einsatzgruppe B
        Death by hanging
        Commuted to life imprisonment
        Released in December 1956
        Died in 1977
        Eugen Steimle

        Eugen Steimle

        Einsatzgruppe B & C
        Death by hanging
        Commuted to 20 years
        Released in June 1954
        Died in 1987
        Paul Blobel

        Paul Blobel

        Commander of Sonderkommando 4a
        Death by hanging
        Executed on June 7, 1951
        Waldemar von Radetzky

        Waldemar von Radetzky

        Deputy commander Sonderkommando 4a
        20 years in prison
        Released
        Died in 1990
        Walter Haensch

        Walter Haensch

        Commander of Sonderkommando 4b
        Death by hanging
        Commuted to 15 years
        Released in August 1955
        Died in 1994
        Walter Blume

        Walter Blume

        Commander of Sonderkommando 7a
        Death by hanging
        Commuted to 25 years
        Released in March 1955
        Died in 1974
        Adolf Ott

        Adolf Ott

        Commander of Sonderkommando 7b
        Death by hanging
        Commuted to life imprisonment
        Released on May 9, 1958
        Died in 1973
        Werner Braune

        Werner Braune

        Commander of Sonderkommando 11b
        Death bu hanging
        Executed on June 7, 1951
        Lothar Fendler

        Lothar Fendler

        Sonderkommando 4b
        10 years in prison
        Commuted to 8 years
        Released in March 1951
        Died in 1983
        Felix Rühl

        Felix Rühl

        Sonderkommando 10b
        10 years in prison
        Released
        Died in 1982
        Martin Sandberger

        Martin Sandberger

        Commander of Einsatzkommando 1a

        Death by hanging
        Commuted to life imprisonment
        Released on May 9, 1958
        Died in 2010

        Eduard Strauch

        Eduard Strauch

        Commander of Einsatzkommando 2

        Death by hanging
        Handed over to Belgian authorities
        Received another death sentence
        Died prior to execution on 11 September 1955

        Andreas Biberstein

        Ernst Biberstein

        Commander of Einsatzkommando 6
        Death by hanging
        Commuted to life imprisonment
        Released on May 9, 1958
        Died in 1986
        Erwin Schultz

        Erwin Schultz

        Commander of Einsatzkommando 12
        20 years in prison
        Commuted to 15 years
        Released on January 9, 1954
        Died in 1981
        Gustav Noske

        Gustav Noske

        Commander of Einsatzkommando 12

        Life imprisonment
        Commuted to 10 years
        Released in December 1951
        Died in 1986

        Matthias Graf

        Matthias Graf

        Einsatzkommando 6
        Time served
        From end of war to trial date
        Emil Haussmann

        Emil Haussmann

        Einsatzkommando 12
        Committed suicide before the
        arraignment on July 31, 1947
        Franz Six

        Franz Six

        Planned Einsatzgruppe occupation roles
        20 years in prison
        Commuted to 10 years
        Released in October 1952
        Died in 1975

        Limited justice after the Einsatzgruppen trial

        Of the 13 death sentences imposed during the Einsatzgruppen Trial, only four were ultimately carried out. Those executed were Otto Ohlendorf, Paul Blobel, Werner Braune and Erich Naumann, all of whom had played leading roles in the systematic mass murder of civilians in occupied Eastern Europe.

        During the 1950s, changing political priorities associated with the emerging Cold War led to the commutation or reduction of many prison and death sentences. As a result, numerous convicted Einsatzgruppen leaders were released from prison years before completing their original sentences.

        These men were not low-ranking participants but senior commanders who directed mobile killing units responsible for the murder of tens of thousands of innocent people and the destruction of entire Jewish communities. Although the Einsatzgruppen Trial established important legal precedents and documented the crimes of the Holocaust by bullets, many perpetrators ultimately spent only a fraction of their lives in prison, leaving many survivors and victims' families with the belief that justice had remained incomplete.

        Throughout the trial, Otto Ohlendorf showed no remorse for the murder of approximately 90.000 people. He maintained that he had merely carried out his duty as an SS officer.

        Einsatzgruppen: Frequently Asked Questions & Historical Facts

        What were the Einsatzgruppen?

        The Einsatzgruppen were mobile killing units of Nazi Germany, composed primarily of personnel from the SS, the Sicherheitsdienst (SD), the Gestapo, the Kriminalpolizei (Kripo), the Ordnungspolizei (Orpo) and, in some cases, the Waffen-SS. Following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, these units advanced behind the front lines with orders to identify, round up and systematically murder Jews, Soviet political commissars, Roma and other groups regarded by the Nazi regime as enemies of the state.

        Who commanded the four main Einsatzgruppen units?

        The four main Einsatzgruppen (A, B, C and D) were commanded by senior SS officers. Many were highly educated and several held doctoral degrees, illustrating that the perpetrators of the Holocaust by bullets were often experienced administrators, lawyers and professionals rather than ordinary soldiers.

        • Dr. Franz Walter Stahlecker – Commander of Einsatzgruppe A
        • Arthur Nebe – Commander of Einsatzgruppe B
        • Dr. Dr. Otto Rasch – Commander of Einsatzgruppe C
        • Dr. Otto Ohlendorf – Commander of Einsatzgruppe D

        During 1942, Stahlecker, Nebe and Rasch were replaced by new commanders, while Otto Ohlendorf remained in command of Einsatzgruppe D until it was dissolved in 1942.

        What happened to the Einsatzgruppen leaders after the war?

        Following World War II, many senior Einsatzgruppen commanders were prosecuted during the Einsatzgruppen Trial (1947–1948), one of the Subsequent Nuremberg Trials. Twenty-four defendants were indicted for war crimes, crimes against humanity, and membership in criminal organizations, including the SS and the Sicherheitsdienst (SD).

        Twenty-two defendants were convicted. Thirteen were sentenced to death, although only four Otto Ohlendorf, Paul Blobel, Werner Braune, and Erich Naumann were ultimately executed. Many of the remaining prison and death sentences were later reduced or commuted during the 1950s, allowing several convicted war criminals to regain their freedom.

        Why did the Einsatzgruppen transition from mass shootings to gas vans?

        By late 1941, the SS leadership sought a more "impersonal" method of mass murder to reduce the psychological burden on the Einsatzgruppen firing squads while increasing the efficiency of the killing process. This led to the introduction of gas vans (Sonderwagen), mobile gas chambers in which victims were murdered by carbon monoxide from the vehicle's exhaust.

        Gas vans were first deployed in the occupied Soviet Union and were later used extensively at the Chełmno extermination camp in occupied Poland. However, they never replaced mass shootings as the primary method of murder employed by the Einsatzgruppen. Poor road conditions, mechanical breakdowns and the limited capacity of the vehicles meant that large-scale shootings remained the principal means of carrying out the Holocaust by bullets.

        The vague orders the Einsatzgruppen recieved for Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union.
        The orders the Einsatzgruppen received for Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union.

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